The functioning of the Government of India is based on: ✅ The Constitution of India
✅ Separation of powers
✅ Hierarchy of decision-making
✅ Rules of business
✅ Inter-ministerial coordination
Let’s understand it step-by-step.
Branch = Headed By = Role
Executive = President & PM = Implements laws, runs administration
Legislature = Parliament (Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha) = Makes laws, grants approval for spending
Judiciary = Supreme Court & High Courts = Interprets laws, ensures justice
Elected representatives: Prime Minister, Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State.
They take policy decisions, approve major plans, and are answerable to Parliament.
Senior civil servants: IAS, IPS, IFS officers.
They draft policies, implement decisions, run departments.
Headed by Secretaries in each Ministry.
Head of the Government
Guides all ministries and departments
Takes final calls on national matters
Chairs Cabinet Committees (like Security, Economic Affairs)
Constitutional Head
Acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers
Signs laws, appoints Governors, judges, etc.
Take decisions in their respective ministries
Report to PM
Coordinates inter-ministerial work
PMO gives strategic direction to ministries
Cabinet Secretariat ensures files are processed as per rules
Allocates subjects to ministries
For example: Education, Railways, Health, etc.
Tells how the business is conducted
Who approves what? When should a matter go to the PM or Cabinet?
Step
Action
1 - Idea generated by PM or Ministry
2 - Department prepares note for approval
3 - Sent to Ministry of Finance, Law Ministry, other stakeholders
4 - Once all agree, Cabinet Note is made
5 - Cabinet approves
6 - Scheme launched → Implementation → Monitoring
Minister – Takes political decisions
Secretary – Top bureaucrat, policy advisor
Joint Secretary – Division head
Deputy Secretary / Director – File clearance, supervision
Under Secretary – Drafts notes, supervises sections
Section Officer / ASO – File movement, rule application
Clerical Staff / MTS – Physical handling of files, support
Cabinet Committees: Common platform for big decisions
NITI Aayog: Think-tank that provides inputs and coordinates with States
E-office & File Movement: Digital tracking of approvals
Inter-Ministerial Groups: For big issues like Climate, Disaster, Health
Parliament: Asks questions, debates bills, approves budget
CAG (Comptroller & Auditor General): Audits government spending
Central Vigilance Commission / Lokpal: Watchdogs against corruption
RTI (Right to Information): Ensures transparency
If the Ministry of Health wants to start a National Mental Health Mission:
Drafted by Joint Secretary, vetted by Law & Finance
Sent to PMO and then to Cabinet
After Cabinet approval → Guidelines issued → Implementation by States
Budget allocation made by Finance Ministry
Scheme monitored by NITI Aayog or internal review committee
Component - Role
Constitution = Lays foundation
PM & Cabinet = Policy decisions
Ministries/Departments = Execute those decisions
Bureaucrats = Ensure rules are followed, decisions are implemented
Rules of Business = Guide allocation and decision-making
Parliament & Courts = Ensure accountability, transparency
Cabinet Minister – Heads the ministry and is part of the Union Cabinet.
Minister of State (Independent Charge) – Heads a ministry without oversight from a Cabinet Minister.
Minister of State – Assists the Cabinet Minister in their duties.
1. Secretary Level (Top Bureaucrat in the Ministry):
Secretary to the Government of India
Administrative head of the ministry
Policy advisor to the Minister
Equivalent to Chief Secretary in State
2. Additional Secretary
Assists the Secretary
Heads a major wing or division
Equivalent to Principal Secretary in States
3. Joint Secretary
Heads a specific department or subject area within the ministry
Reports to the Additional Secretary/Secretary
4. Director / Deputy Secretary
Director: Senior level officer handling specific functions under a Joint Secretary
Deputy Secretary: Assists in daily operations and implementation
5. Under Secretary
Looks after files and processes, supports Deputy Secretary
Coordinates with Section Officers for data and drafting
6. Section Officer (SO)
Supervises Assistants and manages file movement and basic decisions
Ensures communication between Under Secretary and lower staff
7. Assistant Section Officer (ASO)
Drafts notes, maintains files, and assists SOs
8. Upper Division Clerk (UDC) / Lower Division Clerk (LDC)
Routine clerical tasks, file keeping, typing, document management
9. Multi-Tasking Staff (MTS)
Physical file movement, office maintenance support
The PMO is the nerve centre of the Government.
It assists the Prime Minister in policy making, coordination among ministries, and supervision of critical government functions.
a. Administrative Oversight
PM can give direction and supervision to any ministry.
All ministers report to the PM, especially in matters of national importance.
b. Appointments and Approvals
Appointments of Secretaries and other senior officers are often cleared through the PMO.
Important projects and policies get reviewed at the PMO level.
c. Cabinet Secretariat Coordination
The Cabinet Secretariat, under the PM, coordinates among all ministries.
It circulates Cabinet decisions and monitors implementation.
d. Strategic Issues
Ministries dealing with defense, external affairs, home, and finance are in constant touch with the PMO due to the strategic nature of their work.
🧠 Example:
If the Ministry of External Affairs is planning a bilateral treaty with another country, the PMO must be involved for clearance, inputs, and strategy.
Inter-Ministerial Committees/Groups
Formed for specific tasks or projects.
Include representatives from relevant ministries.
Cabinet Committees
E.g., Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) includes Ministers from Finance, Agriculture, Commerce, etc.
NITI Aayog
Works with all ministries on planning and evaluation.
Encourages coordination for sustainable development.
Joint Circulars / Notifications
Ministries may issue joint orders or share responsibilities.
E-office/ Digital Platforms
Ministries collaborate via electronic file movement and meetings.
🧠 Example:
The Smart Cities Mission involves:
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (lead),
Ministry of Power (for electrification),
Ministry of Environment (for sustainability),
Ministry of IT (for digital infra).
They all coordinate to implement the mission smoothly.
Link Type
Mechanism
Example
Ministry ↔ PMO
PMO supervision, Cabinet Secretariat
Foreign policy by MEA, cleared by PMO
Ministry ↔ Ministry
Committees, joint work, e-platforms
Smart Cities Mission, Digital India Initiative
As of now, the Union Government has 50+ Ministries. Here’s a categorized overview of the major ministries:
Ministry of Home Affairs
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of External Affairs
Ministry of Law and Justice
Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions
Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
Ministry of Railways
Ministry of Civil Aviation
Ministry of Power
Ministry of Commerce and Industry
Ministry of Corporate Affairs
Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME)
Ministry of Heavy Industries
Ministry of Education
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
Ministry of Women and Child Development
Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
Ministry of Minority Affairs
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare
Ministry of Rural Development
Ministry of Jal Shakti
Ministry of Electronics and IT
Ministry of Science & Technology
Ministry of Culture
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
You can find the full list at: https://cabsec.gov.in
This is a constitutional framework that divides work among the Ministries/Departments.
It is made under Article 77(3) of the Constitution.
It’s like the job description of each ministry.
Specifies which subject falls under which ministry.
Mentions attached/subordinate offices, autonomous bodies, and PSUs under each ministry.
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
Allocation of Business:
Forest policy and laws
Environment protection
Climate change coordination
Wildlife and biodiversity
Ministry of Education
Allocation of Business:
University Grants Commission (UGC)
National Education Policy
IITs, IIMs
Digital learning platforms
Defines how the business allocated to ministries is to be transacted.
Also made under Article 77(3) of the Constitution.
Who takes decisions: Minister, PM, Cabinet?
How inter-ministerial consultations are done
How Cabinet notes are prepared
How urgent business is handled
Cases that must go to the PM or Cabinet
Let’s say Ministry of Defence wants to purchase military equipment worth ₹10,000 crore:
As per ToBR, any deal above a certain limit must be placed before the Cabinet Committee on Security.
File is initiated by Joint Secretary → Secretary → Defence Minister → PMO → Cabinet.
Another example: If Ministry of Health wants to introduce a national vaccination scheme, it must:
Consult Ministry of Finance (for funding)
Consult Law Ministry (if new rules are needed)
Then send the Cabinet Note via Cabinet Secretariat
Item
Purpose
Legal Backing
Example
List of Ministries
Names and structure of ministries
-
Ministry of Health, Ministry of Railways, etc.
Allocation of Business Rules
What each ministry is responsible for
Article 77(3)
MoE handles UGC, IITs, NEP
Transaction of Business Rules
How ministries conduct business, take approvals, consult
Article 77(3)
Defence deals, cabinet notes, inter-ministerial approvals
Departments:
Department of School Education & Literacy: Focuses on primary and secondary education, literacy campaigns, and initiatives to promote education among all sections of society.
Department of Higher Education: Responsible for university education, technical education, scholarships, and the promotion of language development.
Allocation of Work:
Department of School Education & Literacy: Formulation of policies related to school education, implementation of literacy programs, and promotion of inclusive education.
Department of Higher Education: Oversees institutions like the University Grants Commission (UGC), Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), and Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs).
Departments:
Department of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship: Sole department focusing on skill development and promoting entrepreneurship across the country.
Allocation of Work:
Coordination of skill development frameworks, removal of disconnect between demand and supply of skilled manpower, and promotion of innovative thinking for existing and future jobs.Skill Development Ministry
Departments:
Department of Cooperation: Dedicated to realizing the vision of 'from cooperation to prosperity' by strengthening cooperative movements.Wikipedia+5Cooperation Ministry+5Rural Development Ministry+5
Allocation of Work:
General policy in the field of cooperation and coordination of cooperative activities across various sectors.Cooperation Ministry
Departments:
Department of Minority Affairs: Focused on the development and welfare of minority communities in India.Ministry of Minority Affairs
Allocation of Work:
Policy planning, coordination, evaluation, and review of regulatory and developmental programs for minority communities.Ministry of Minority Affairs
Departments:
Department of Rural Development: Aims at improving the quality of life in rural areas through various programs and initiatives.
Allocation of Work:
Public cooperation, matters related to voluntary agencies for rural development, and coordination of cooperative activities in rural sectors.Rural Development Ministry
Departments:
Department of Justice: Handles the administration of justice, appointment of judges, and legal reforms.Department of Justice
Allocation of Work:
Appointments, resignations, and removals of Chief Justices and Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, their salaries, pensions, and related matters.Department of Justice
Departments:
Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT): Focuses on promoting industrial development and internal trade.SCC Online+1Wikipedia+1
Allocation of Work:
Policies related to industrial development, promotion of internal trade, and facilitation of ease of doing business.
Departments:
Department of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare: Focuses on agricultural policy, farmer welfare schemes, and crop management.
Department of Agricultural Research and Education: Oversees research and education in agriculture, including institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
Allocation of Work:
Department of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare: Implementation of policies and programs related to agriculture, horticulture, and soil conservation.
Department of Agricultural Research and Education: Promotion and coordination of agricultural research and education.
Departments:
Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals: Deals with policy and planning for the chemical and petrochemical industries.
Department of Fertilizers: Responsible for planning and monitoring the production, distribution, and pricing of fertilizers.
Department of Pharmaceuticals: Focuses on the growth and development of the pharmaceutical industry.
Allocation of Work:
Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals: Development of the chemical and petrochemical sectors, including policy formulation.
Department of Fertilizers: Ensuring the availability and distribution of fertilizers to farmers.
Department of Pharmaceuticals: Regulation and promotion of the pharmaceutical industry.
Departments:
Department of Commerce: Manages international trade, export promotion, and trade agreements.
Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT): Focuses on industrial policy, foreign direct investment, and intellectual property rights.
Allocation of Work:
Department of Commerce: Formulation and implementation of policies related to international trade.
DPIIT: Promotion of industrial development and internal trade, including startups and ease of doing business.
Departments:
Department of Telecommunications: Oversees telecommunications policy, licensing, and regulation.
Department of Posts: Manages postal services across the country.Wikipedia
Allocation of Work:
Department of Telecommunications: Policy formulation and licensing in the telecom sector.
Department of Posts: Provision of postal services and related infrastructure.
Departments:
Department of Consumer Affairs: Protects consumer rights and regulates standards.
Department of Food and Public Distribution: Ensures food security through the Public Distribution System.
Allocation of Work:
Department of Consumer Affairs: Implementation of consumer protection laws and standards.
Department of Food and Public Distribution: Management of food procurement, storage, and distribution.
Departments:
Department of Defence: Deals with defence policy and matters related to the armed forces.
Department of Defence Production: Focuses on the production of defence equipment and supplies.
Department of Defence Research and Development: Oversees research and development in defence technologies.
Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare: Looks after the welfare of ex-servicemen and their dependents.
Allocation of Work:
Department of Defence: Defence policy, armed forces, and defence cooperation.
Department of Defence Production: Indigenous production of defence equipment.Cabinet Secretariat+1latestlaws.com+1
Department of Defence Research and Development: Development of new defence technologies.
Department of Ex-Servicemen Welfare: Welfare schemes for ex-servicemen.
Departments:
Department of School Education and Literacy: Focuses on primary and secondary education and literacy programs.
Department of Higher Education: Oversees tertiary education, universities, and technical institutions.
Allocation of Work:
Department of School Education and Literacy: Implementation of policies for school education and literacy.
Department of Higher Education: Regulation and development of higher education institutions.
Departments:
Department of Electronics and Information Technology: Responsible for policy matters relating to information technology, electronics, and the internet.
Allocation of Work:
Promotion of e-governance, digital initiatives, and IT industry development.
Departments:
Department of Environment, Forest and Climate Change: Handles environmental policies, forest conservation, and climate change initiatives.
Allocation of Work:
Implementation of policies for environmental protection and sustainable development.
Departments:
Department of Economic Affairs: Manages economic policies, government expenditure, and financial markets.
Department of Expenditure: Oversees public financial management and expenditure.
Department of Revenue: Responsible for taxation policies and administration.
Department of Financial Services: Focuses on banking, insurance, and financial services.